一、选择1-15；二、填空16-20*2；三、四、21-40选择连线；五、41-45名词解释*2；六、简答46-48*4；七、分析综合49-50*9
针对复习：
一、选择：
二、填空：
三、四、选择连线*****
1、types of morphemes: Free morphemes; bound morphemes; inflectional morphemes.
2、types of bound morphemes：Prefix; Suffix.
3、types of idioms: Idioms Nominal in nature; Idioms Adjectival in nature; Idioms Verbal in nature; Idioms Adverbal in nature; sentence idioms.
4、types of word meaning: Grammatical meaning and lexical meaning; conceptual meaning and associative meaning (connotative meaning\stylistic ~\affective ~\collocative ~)
5、idioms stylistic features: colloquialisms; slang; literary expressions.
6、idioms rhetorical features:
phonetic manipulation (alliteration\rhyme); lexical manipulation (reiteration\repetition\juxtaposition);figures of speech (simile\metaphor\metonymy\synecdovhe\euphemism\personification)
7、types of word formation: affixation; compounding; conversion; blending; clipping; acronym; back-formation; word from proper names.
8、changes in wording: extension; narrowing; elevation; degradation; transfer.
9、types of motivation: morphological motivated; semantic ~; etymological ~; onomatopoeic ~
10、语系划分的标准Estern set : Balto-Slavic(Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.), Indo-Iranian（Persian, Hindi）, Armenian and Albanian ；Western set : Celtic(Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton), Italic(Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian) , Hellenic(Greek), Germanic(Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, English, German).
五、41-45名词解释*2；
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.
Morphology : the study of morpheme and their different forms.
Semantics：the study of word meaning.
Etymology: the study of the origin of words, and of their history and changes in their meaning.
Stylistics : the study of the variation in language which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer
Lexicography : the compiling of dictionaries.
Synchronic study : the study of a word or words at one particular point in time.
Diachronic study: an approach to lexicology which studies how a word (or words) changes over a period of time.
word: a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
vocabulary：Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.
Terminology术语 consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine:
Jargon 行话refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.
slang 俚语belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words
Argot黑话 generally refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, and outsiders can hardly understand it,
Archaisms古词语 are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.
Neologisms 新词语are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.
denizens同化词are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language.
Alien非同化词 are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.
Translation-loans. 借译词Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.
Semantic-loans借义词Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed.
Content word: the basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary ,which accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. It is the most important part of vocabulary.
Creation : the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.
Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in a language
Allomorph: any of the different forms of a morpheme
Free morpheme: a linguistic form which can be used on its own as a word
Bound morpheme: a form (morpheme) which can not he used alone hut must be used with another morpheme. Bound morphemes include hound roots and affixes
Affixes: forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function
Prefixation(suffixation): is the formation of new words by adding prefixes(suffixes) to stem
Inflectional affixes: affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships
Derivational affixes: affixes added to other morphemes to create new words
Root: a morpheme which is the basic part of a word that can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity
Stem: a form to which affixes of any kind can be added
Bound root: a root that can not stand alone as a word
Monomorphemic words: words that have nothing more than a free morpheme
Affixation: Derivation (also known as affixation) is the process of formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. Affixaton consisits of prefixation and suffixation. Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems; suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.
Compounding: Compounding or composition is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way tire called compounds.
Conversion：Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Functional shift = conversion Zero-derivation .Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial conversion
Acronymy Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy 包含两类:1) initialisms (不发音)e.g. BBC, VOA, TB2) acronyms (形成新的发音)e.g. CORE, TEFL
Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a won! plus a part of another word. Words formed by blending are called blends or pormanteau.
Clipping is a way of making new words which involves the shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.
Back-formation is a process of forming new words considered to the opposite process of suffixation by the removal of an affix from existing word.
Words from proper names of place, people, trade, book, etc.
Concept,is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind
Sense : denotes the relationships inside the language.
Reference is the relationship between language and the world
外来词分为四类：1 Denizens ,cup from cuppa , port form portus 2) Aliens garage , décor 3) Translation –loans e.g. long time no see 4) Semantic- loans.e.g. dream.
Motivation 分类：onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation, etymological motivation.
Types of meaning: grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,)
多义关系及两种研究方法:Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more senses or meanings. Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time. Synchronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time. Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created. Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time.
同形同音异义关系 Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/ (v) to put up with. Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear /dia/ (n) a loved person; deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal.
同形同音异义词与多义词的区别 Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creates the problem of differentiation. The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. One important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree, e. g. neck (See 6.1 Polysemy) . On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.
同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.
Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
如何区分同义词？1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application
What are the characteristics of antonyms?1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.
上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes
词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy).词义的扩大 Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less
definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer. There are other kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation.
语境的种类:非语言语境。语言语境：词汇语境和语法语境。There are two types of contexts: linguistic context and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context). Extra-linguistic context refers to those situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use. Linguistic or Intra-linguistic context is further subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. By lexical context we mean the words that occur together with the word in question. By grammatical context we mean that the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.
语境的作用：Three major functions of context: elimination of ambiguity, indication of referents, provision of clues for inferring word-meaning. Context an be summed up as follows:1) definition 2) explanation 3) example 4) synonymy 5) Antonymy 6)hyponymy 7) relevant details 8) word structure
英语习语的特点The characteristics of idioms include semantic unity and structural stability.
英语习语的分类According to the criterion of their grammatical functions, we classify them into idioms nominal in nature, idioms adjectival in nature, idioms verbal in nature, idioms adverbial in nature, and sentence idioms. The stylistic features are characterized with colloquialisms, slang, and literary expressions.
英语习语的使用The use of idioms involves their stylistic features, rhetorical features , and variations of idioms.
英语习语的修辞色彩The rhetorical features of idioms are represented with phonetic manipulation ( alliteration 头韵法and rhyme叠韵) , lexical manipulation ( reiteration复用, repetition重复and juxtaposition反义词叠用), figures of speech ( simile明喻, metaphor暗喻, metonymy转喻, synecdoche借代, personification拟人, euphemism委婉)
英语习语的变异形式In the variations, addition, deletion, replacement, position-shifting and dismembering are involved in the changes in idioms constituents .
Associative meaning : 1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated. 3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.
Metonymy 和Synecdoche ,修饰有何区别? Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names, yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa.
词典的种类There are four types of dictionaries with their features mentioned in this parts: (1) monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, (2) linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries, (3) unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries, (4) specialized dictionaries. A monolingual dictionary is a dictionary which is written in one language. A bilingual dictionary is one in which two languages are involved. A linguistic dictionary is a dictionary which aims at defining words and explaining their usages in the language. An encyclopedic dictionary is one in which encyclopedic information is provided along with the general information as in a linguistic dictionary . An encyclopedia is a dictionary which only provide encyclopedic information concerning each headword. An unabridged dictionary is an unshortened dictionary with at least 200,000 headwords that can supply a great quantity of basic, information about a word. A desk dictionary is a medium-sized dictionary containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000. A pocket dictionary is a dictionary which has about 50,000 entries or fewer.
七、分析综合49-50*9
1、对句子进行理论分析，并改进：ambiguous——原因cause——可以如何理解？——如何改进？improve
2、对单词进行分析：re-collect-ion——归属free morpheme, bound morpheme——解释
3、构词法进行分析：word formation: 例如：VIP=very important person 属于aronym
4、分析idiom:属于什么短语——作用
注：重点有 1、idioms相关知识；
2、一些名词解释，如术语等；
3、types of meaning；